Electronics

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Steps in Studying Electronics

1. Understand the basics of a closed loop circuit
   • A circuit needs to be in a closed loop in order to run because it is the only condition where electrons flow.
   • A closed loop pertains to the path from the negative to the positive terminals of a battery.
2. Learn the basics of elementary electrical components
   • Get a grasp of the Ohm’s Law
   • Current is generated through the flow or movement off electrons; resistance hinders the flow of electrons; voltage generates current because it refers to the work needed to move the charges.
3. Participate in practical experiments
   • Supplement your knowledge by exposing yourself to circuits in real life, instead of restricting yourself to only learn the abstract theory.
4. Learn about the basics of common electrical components
   • Utilize good learning resources to understand the basics of the following components:
     • the resistor,
     • the LED,
     • the capacitor, and
     • the transistor.
5. Make use of transistors as switches
   1. Transistors are crucial components, and using them as switches can assist you in comprehending their nature.
6. Study soldering
   • Unlike breadboard prototypes, which are more fragile, soldering enables you to build long lasting products.
7. Assimilate information about capacitors and diodes
   • Exploring the behavior of capacitors and diodes is the first step to understanding more complicated circuits.
8. Take advantage of Integrated Circuits (ICs)
   • Learning how to use ICs can allow you to add more advanced features to your projects.
9. Design your own Printed Circuit Board (PCB)
   • Creating your own PCB can free you from some limitations, and allow you to creatively solve problems.
10. Introduce Microcontrollers to your projects
    • Microcontrollers open new possibilities for your projects: more advanced functionalities are simplified into lines of code instead of circuit components.

Major Contributions of Scientists

Scientist	Contribution(s)
William Gilbert	- Invented the term electricity - The first person to study the properties of the magnetic ore Iodestone. - Differentiated magnetism and static
Stephen Gray	- Discovered electrical conduction by experimenting with corks and a cloth-rubbed glass tubed
Charles Du Fay	- The foremost proponent of the two-fluid theory—a theory that suggested that two liquids make up electricity.
Benjamin Franklin	- Invented the lightning rod - Demonstrated that lightning was electricity - Coined the terms battery, charge, and conductor - He was opposed to Du Fays proposition and suggested that there is only one electrical fluid instead of two.
Charles Agustin de Coulomb	- Established the Coulombs Law: the law that states that the electrostatic force of attraction/repulsion of two point charges is proportional to their product, while it is inversely proportional to the square of their distance of separation.
Luigi Galvani	- Laid the foundations for electrophysiology by carrying out experiments on frogs in the second half of the 18th century. - Paved the way for the discovery of the electric battery
Alessandro Volta	- Invented the electric battery in 1799 (the Voltaic pile) - Disproved Galvani’s “animal electricity”, which proposed that the animals’ leg generated electricity.
Hans Christian Oersted	- Discovered the relationship between electric currents and magnetic fields, and how currents produce magnetic fields.
Andre Ampere	- One of the pioneers of electrodynamics—a discipline investigating the effects of electromagnetism and electricity in motion
George Simon Ohm	- Introduced a theory (Ohm’s Law) that explained the relationship between potential difference and current.
Michael Faraday	- Discovered the induction of electric currents - Discovered the use of electricity to separate matter (electrolysis)|- Paved the way for James Clerk Maxwell to produce the first unified field theory in physics -Invented the electric motor in 1821
Joseph Henry	- Discovered the phenomenon of self-inductance. - First person to wind insulated wires around an iron core for strong electromagnets - Testified in a patent suit involving the telegraph
James Clerk Maxwell	- Introduced the Maxwells equations: an equation which unified electricity, magnetism, and light. This was fundamental in the development of modern physics. - Demonstrated that electricity, magnetism, and light follow the same underlying phenomenon; however, are manifested differently.
Heinrich Rudolph Hertz	- Proved the predictions of James Clerk Maxwell on electromagnetic waves by experimenting with an induction coil and a Layden jar.
Heinrich Geissler	- In mid-1850s, he developed the Geissler mercury vacuum pump by improving an older vacuum pump design. - Invented the Geissler tube in 1857, which led to the commercial neon lighting and the Crookes tube (a tool utilized in the discovery of the electron)
William Crookes	- Invented the Crookes Tube - Discovery of thallium - Provided researches on cathode rays
Thomas Edison	- Invented the incandescent light bulb, phonograph, motion picture camera - Improved the telegraph and telephone
Jean Baptise Perrin	- Proved that cathode rays was naturally tied to negatively charged particles - His studies of the Brownian motion confirmed Einsteins theory whereby colloidal particles obey laws of gas.
Joseph Thomson	- Studied the cathode rays, which led to the discovery of the electron - Established a way to separate the types of atoms and molecules using positive rays - Discovered some isotopes
Robert A. Millikan	- Determined the magnitude of the electron charge. - Demonstrated the atomic structure of electricity - Verified Einsteins photoelectric equation - Was the first to photoelectrically determine Plancks constant

Applications of Electronics in Automation and Computers

Computers

Integrated circuits (ICs) are efficient circuits that are used due to their smaller size and costs compare to traditional electrical devices. For this reason, they can perform all functions of a computers central processing unit (CPU). They are valuable in the field of computers because of the microprocessor—a component in computers that serve as the CPU packaged into a single or more ICs.

One use of resistors are suppressing electromagnetic Interference (EMI), which computers utilize for their input and output ports. On the other hand, transistors assist computers by being fundamental components of ICs. Its most notable function is in generating binary bits for Boolean logic in computers. Lastly, capacitors register the information stored by the transmission channel in a computer.

Automation

In the automotive industry, specialized ICs or microcontrollers are developed to control specific operations in embedded systems, enabling us to control the engine. Other than the automotive industry, the medical field make use of electronics by using operational amplifiers (op-amps) in medical devices for signal amplification and conditioning. In the military, diodes are utilized for designing communication devices.

Electronic Components’ Functions

Component	Function(s)
Resistor	Resists the flow of current.
Capacitor	Temporarily store the electric charges from the circuit.
Inductor	Store energy in the form of a magnetic field.
Transformer	Used for either stepping up or stepping down the power.

Electronic Instruments’ Functions

Instrument	Function
Power Supply	A power supply is used in electronics to supply electricity for components that utilize electric power; however, unlike power source, it works by converting the source current into an accurate voltage, frequency, or format to the power load.
Voltmeter	Voltmeters is an electrical device used to measure the voltage drop across a resistor.
Ammeter	Ammeters is an electrical device used to measure the current of a circuit.
Ohmmeter	Ohmmeters are used to compute the resistance of a circuit.
Wattmeter	A wattmeter is an electrical device utilized for measuring the electrical power present in a circuit.
Oscilloscope	Oscilloscope is an electrical instrument used for displays voltage waveforms and represents the variation of voltage over time.

Fleming’s Oscillation Valve

Fleming designed a rectifying device by innovating Edison’s patented light bulb, and named it an oscillation valve. He gave it that name because of its resemblance with the behavior of valves in pumps that restrict gas or water to only move unidirectionally. The device could rectify electric currents and radio waves; as a result, it became pivotal in the development of future inventions, including radio, radar, supercomputers, and artificial intelligence.

Vacuum Tube

Filament

The filament (or heater) is a fundamental component in vacuum tubes. It is a thin wire that heats up and brightens when current passes through it. The heat is then used by the cathode.

Cathode

The cathode is a component which is connected to a low or no voltage source, and produces electrons in the tube. Through thermionic emission, it frees electrons from itself, which is then controlled by the electric fields of other tube components. Furthermore, the electrons will serve as the source of the tube’s current.

Anode

The anode (or plate), in contrast to the cathode, are connected to the highest voltage present in the amplifier. Its voltage difference with the cathode creates an electric field between them. Moreover, the electrons liberated by the cathode will become attracted to the positively charged anode. Conventionally, we describe the current flow opposite to the actual electron flow; consequentially, the current present in the vacuum tube is referred to as the plate current.

Grid

The control grid is between the cathode and anode. It controls the electron flow by differentiating the voltage between itself and the cathode.

Solid State Electronics

Introduction

Solid-state electronics concerns devices that are semiconductors and replace moving parts. In the 1960s, it was used to shed light on the differences between the method of electric transfer between semiconductors and older vacuum tubes, highlighting the difference in how electrical signals move through solids and gases.

Examples

1. Microprocessor chip
2. LED lamp
3. Solar cell
4. Charge coupled device (CCD)
5. Camera image sensor
6. Semiconductor laser

Electrical Classifications of Matter

Conductor

Conductors are materials where electrons can easily move from one atom to another when voltage is applied. This is due to the overlap between the conduction band and valence bands that make it easy for the valence electrons to become free electrons.

Semiconductor

Semiconductors have moderate conductivity, meaning that its conductivity is between the extremes of a conductor and the extremes of an insulator. Despite the gap existing between the valence band and the conduction band, it is still thin enough to allow for the facilitation of electron movement.

Insulator

Because of the larger gaps between the conduction and valence bands, insulator prevents energy to flow between objects. As a result, inductors are characterized by their lack of conductivity or inability to conduct electricity.

Intrinsic and Extrinsic Semiconductors

Intrinsic semiconductors are purely made up of semiconductor material, which entails that there are no added impurities. Whereas, Extrinsic semiconductors are doped through the introduction of controlled impurities or dopants. Extrinsic semiconductors can be classified as either an N-type or P-type: N-type when its elements donate extra electrons and produce an excess of free electrons; P-type when it produces excess holes and accept electrons from the semiconductors.